Medicinal chemistry-1

 How blood glucose level is maintained normally in fasting state ?

Ans:

1.   Reduction of Uptake of glucose by less vital tissues

Due to low insulin level, glucose uptake by muscle and adipose tissue is reduced due to inhibition of glut-4-transporter

2.   Stimulation of glycogenolysis

Glucagon through its receptors in liver cells activates phosphorylase enzyme through cyclic AMP.

3.Stimulation of gluconeogenesis

Glucagon stimulates gluconeogenesis from amino acids through alanine- glucose cycle Lactate forms glucose in liver through Cori cycle - Lactate-glucose cycle.

Epinephrine promotes glycogenolysis in muscle and on catabolism, lactate produced is carried to liver for gluconeogenesis

 

 What is the Difference Between Catabolism and Anabolism?

Difference Between Catabolism and Anabolism
Catabolism breaks down big complex molecules into smaller, easier to absorb molecules.	Anabolism builds molecules required for the body’s functionality.
The process of catabolism releases energy.	Anabolic processes require energy.
Hormones involved in the processes are adrenaline, cytokine, glucagon, and cortisol.	Hormones involved in the process are estrogen, testosterone, growth hormones and insulin.
Examples of catabolic processes are proteins becoming amino acids, glycogen breaking down into glucose and triglycerides breaking up into fatty acids.	Examples include the formation of polypeptides from amino acids, glucose forming glycogen and fatty acids forming triglycerides.
In catabolism, potential energy is changed into kinetic energy.	In anabolism, kinetic energy is converted into potential energy.
It is required to perform different activities in living entities.	It is required for maintenance, growth, and storage.

How blood glucose is brought down to normal level in fed state?

By transport of glucose into the cells

Glut-2 transporter in liver is freely permeable to glucose. Insulin increases the transport of glucose across cell membranes of adipose tissue and muscle by stimulating glut-4-transporter.

Stimulation of glycolysis

In liver, insulin increases the glycolysis by inducing the synthesis of the following enzymes

ü Glucokinase

ü Phosphofructokinase-1

ü Pyruvate kinase

Stimulation of glycogenesis

In liver and muscle, insulin stimulates glycogenesis by activating glycogen synthase through dephosphorylation of the enzyme.

Stimulation of lipogenesis

Insulin stimulates the acetyl-CoA- carboxylase, the rate limiting enzyme in fatty acid synthesis mainly in liver, and to a lesser extent in adipose tissue.

Stimulation of protein synthesis

Insulin increases protein synthesis.

 

What is the main principle of Carbohydrates?

Carbohydrates are vital to your health for many reasons.Such as:

Providing energy

Carbohydrates are the body's main fuel source. During digestion, sugars and starches are broken down into simple sugars. They're then absorbed into the bloodstream, where they're known as blood sugar (blood glucose).

From there, glucose enters the body's cells with the help of insulin. Glucose is used by the body for energy. Glucose fuels your activities — whether it's going for a jog or simply breathing and thinking. Extra glucose is stored in the liver, muscles and other cells for later use. Or extra glucose is converted to fat.

Protecting against disease

Some evidence suggests that whole grains and dietary fiber from whole foods help lower your risk of heart disease and stroke. Fiber may also protect against obesity, colon and rectal cancers, and type 2 diabetes. Fiber is also essential for optimal digestive health.

Controlling weight

Evidence shows that eating plenty of fruit, vegetables and whole grains can help you control your weight. Their bulk and fiber content aids weight control by helping you feel full on fewer calories. Despite what proponents of low-carb diets claim, few studies show that a diet rich in healthy carbs leads to weight gain or obesity.

 

 

How to make healthy carbohydrates work in a balanced diet?

1.   Focus on eating fiber-rich fruits and vegetables

2.   Choose whole grains

3.   Stick to low-fat dairy products

4.   Eat more beans, peas and lentils.

5.   Limit added sugars.

 

 

What causes deficiency of carbohydrates?

Carbohydrates are degraded into sugar which, as a primary energy source, is required for the brain, muscles and other parts of the human body to function normally. When you don't get enough carbohydrates, the level of sugar in your blood may drop to below the normal range (70-99 mg/dL), causing hypoglycemia. Hypoglycemia kills the patient immediately whereas hyperglycemia kills slowly by producing complications and organ failure So it is essential to maintain blood glucose at optimum level.

 

Classify the Carbohydrates.

 

 

How do you convert a 3-carbon carbohydrate to a 4-carbon carbohydrate?

 

Using Killiany-Fisher synthesis I can easily convert a 3-carbon carbohydrate to a 4-carbon carbohydrate.

The Kiliani–Fischer synthesis lengthens the carbon chain of carbohydrates by adding one carbon to the aldehyde group of an aldose. It is organized in 2 steps.such as:

 

 

How do you convert a 6-carbon carbohydrate to a 5-carbon carbohydrate?

 

Using Ruff degradation I can easily convert a 3-carbon carbohydrate to a 4-carbon carbohydrate. Ruff degradation is a reaction used to shorten the open chain forms of monosaccharides. It is functionally the reverse reaction of Kiliani-Fischer synthesis.

It is organized in 2 steps.such as:

 

What is Glycolysis? Discuss about it.

Glycolysis is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose C₆H₁₂O₆, into pyruvate.The free energy released in this process is used to form the high-energy molecules and NADH.

It is organized in 10 steps.such as:

 

Step-1: Hexokinase

The first step in glycolysis is the conversion of D-glucose into glucose-6-phosphate. The enzyme that catalyzes this reaction is hexokinase.

Step 2: Phosphoglucose Isomerase

 

The second reaction of glycolysis is the rearrangement of glucose 6-phosphate (G6P) into fructose 6-phosphate (F6P) by glucose phosphate isomerase (Phosphoglucose Isomerase).

 

Step 3: Phosphofructokinase

 

Phosphofructokinase, with magnesium as a cofactor, changes fructose 6-phosphate into fructose 1,6-bisphosphate.

Step 4: Aldolase

The enzyme Aldolase splits fructose 1, 6-bisphosphate into two sugars that are isomers of each other. These two sugars are dihydroxyacetone phosphate  (DHAP) and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (GAP).

Step 5: Triosphosphate isomerase

The enzyme triosephosphate isomerase rapidly inter- converts the molecules dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (GAP). Glyceraldehyde phosphate is removed / used in next step of Glycolysis.

Step 6: Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate Dehydrogenase

Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) dehydrogenates and adds an inorganic phosphate to glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, producing 1,3 bisphosphoglycerate.

 

Step 7: Phosphoglycerate Kinase

Phosphoglycerate kinase transfers a phosphate group from 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate to ADP to form ATP and 3-phosphoglycerate.

 

Step 8: Phosphoglycerate Mutase

The enzyme phosphoglycero mutase relocates the P from 3- phosphoglycerate from the 3rd carbon to the 2nd carbon to form 2-phosphoglycerate.

 

Step 9: Enolase

The  enzyme  enolase removes a molecule of water from 2-phosphoglycerate to form phosphoenolpyruvic acid (PEP).

 

Step 10: Pyruvate Kinase

The enzyme pyruvate kinase transfers a P from  phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) to ADP to form pyruvic acid and ATP